9.
Music
Ichiro Fujinaga and
Susan Forscher Weiss
Introduction
Technological advances are often accompanied by growing pains. Following the advent of printing, texts were produced in an effort to reach wider audiences. Many of these, in a wide variety of subjects, especially music, were based on the most popular source materials. As with many other disciplines, computer applications in music have been dramatically affected by the advent of the Internet. The best-known phenomenon is the proliferation of files – mostly popular music – in compressed format known as MP3. There are also peer-to-peer file sharing programs such as Napster. The availability of sample music through online music stores such as amazon.com and barnesandnoble.com as well as in other specialized sites such as the Classical Music Archives or the web pages of professors at numerous universities around the world has changed the lives of scholars and music listeners in general. In addition, music notation software has revolutionized the music publishing industry. It allows composers to produce professional-quality scores and scholars to prepare critical editions more efficiently and economically. Optical music recognition (OMR) is still in the process of developing adequate techniques. Once accomplished, OMR and other newer technologies will redefine the way musicians are able to analyze musical scores.
Perhaps the technology that had the most profound influence on music scholarship has been the availability of e-mail, discussion lists, and society listservs, providing scholars and lay people with opportunities to exchange ideas and materials without the delay of traditional modes of communication. This trend is documented as late as 1995 (Troutman 1995).
E-mail has provided scholars with opportunities for communication and the sharing of ideas. It also has paved the way for the formation of national and international consortiums. Some professional listservs include the AMS (American Musicological Society) and SMT (Society of Music Theory) lists and their many offshoots. Hundreds of websites provide information to scholars in various music disciplines. Online versions of important music reference materials include the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, the Repertoire International des Sources Musicales (RISM), the Repertoire International de Litterature Musicale (RILM), the International Index to Music Periodicals (IIMP), the Music Index, Musical America, and Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum, among countless others.
The following review of computer applications in music scholarship will focus on the last decade, examining developments in a number of areas including notation software, MIDI (Musical Instrument Data Interchange), and MP3, databases, specialized resources, computer applications for music scholars, and music information retrieval (MIR) systems. For previous reviews of the discipline, see Alphonce (1989), Davis (1988), Bent and Morehen (1978), and Hewlett and Selfridge-Field (1991).
Notation Software
Music notation software has been developed over the course of the last two decades of the twentieth century, now allowing composers to prepare their own music without the necessity of hiring professional copyists. Before the advent of this technology, individual parts were manually copied from the score. Large ensemble pieces that require a score for the conductor as well as parts for individual musicians can now be produced in record time and at a fraction of the cost. Once the master score is entered into the computer, the parts can be generated automatically with a minimal amount of manual editing. This software is also widely used in the music publishing industry and allows musicologists to produce scholarly editions of works much more accurately, efficiently, and economically than before.
One drawback, and an explanation for the lack of widespread use, is the absence of standard music representation format, either as de facto proprietary (equivalent to Word in the text world) or as an open standard, such as ASCII. Despite numerous efforts since the advent of computer applications in music to create such a format (Hewlett and Selfridge-Field 1991), no such standard has emerged. Some may argue that the proprietary format of the very popular music notation software Finale is becoming a standard, but others contend that another proprietary format of an increasingly popular competitor called Sibelius may become the standard of the future. Even if one or both of these become the standard, without some open formats, equivalent to ASCII or RTF, these files will be too cumbersome for other purposes such as searching and analysis.
Optical Music Recognition
One way to create a computer-readable format of music notation is to use optical music recognition software, similar to optical character recognition technology. A variety of research protocols are being tested and commercial software is becoming available, but the accuracy of the recognition is highly dependent on the type and quality of the original document and on the complexity of the music. Newer techniques are being applied that will enable the recognition of lute tablature, medieval music notation, and music notation systems from other cultures (Selfridge-Field 1994b).
MIDI and MP3
Outside of music notation, there are two open formats for music that have emerged as standards: MIDI and MP3. Musical Instrument Data Interchange (MIDI) was developed by a consortium of music synthesizer manufacturers in the early 1980s. It has become extremely widespread, becoming the de facto standard for popular music and the world standard for exchanging information between electronic musical instruments and music software.
Originally designed to capture the gestures of keyboard performers, it does have some limitations. A MIDI file contains data as to when, which, and how fast a key was depressed. It does not contain the timbre of the instrument or much notational information such as the precise pitch of a note (A♯ or B♭) or which notes are grouped together. Nevertheless, a large amount of music is available in MIDI format on the Internet and in commercial classical piano music recordings. (There are also acoustic pianos that can play back MIDI files.)
In general, most traditional music scholars base their research on scores. The majority of analytical methods and theories are dependent on notated music. Thus, the lack of crucial notational information in MIDI files renders this format less useful for scholarly work.
The recent explosion in the proliferation of MP3 files can be explained as a convergence of various factors. Among these is the standardization of audio format, a higher bandwidth access to the Internet, a dramatic increase in computing power on the desktop, and the invention of clever compression methods.
The representation of digital audio (as sound) was firmly established in the 1980s by the invention of compact discs (CDs). The standard requires that the sound is captured (digitized) 44,100 times per second and each sample is stored as a 16-bit integer. Although there are a number of competing file formats for audio, these are not difficult to interchange because they are basically a series of numbers. The storage required for one minute of stereo audio is about 10 MB (megabytes). Even with a relatively high-speed modem (28.8 KB), it takes a couple of hours to download a pop song of three minutes (30 MB). The MP3 compression technology reduces the size of the audio files to up to one-hundredth of its original size. Finally, a computer powerful enough to decompress and play back the downloaded MP3 file was needed. Home computers in the late 1980s could barely play back a CD-quality stereo audio. Thanks to an almost hundredfold increase in the computing power of desktop computers within the last decade, today almost any computer can download, decompress, and play back music while the users perform other tasks.
Databases
General bibliographical databases
The searchable online bibliographical databases are among the best computer tools for all music scholars in the last decade. Two of the most useful and important bibliographical databases for music scholars are RILM (Repertoire International de Litterature Musicale) and Music Index. RILM Abstracts of Music Literature contains over 275,000 entries from over 500 scholarly periodicals from 60 countries with 140 languages and includes original-language titles; title translations in English; full bibliographic information; and abstracts in English. The Music Index: A Subject-Author Guide to Music Periodical Literature covers 650 publications from 1979 and covers a wider range of publications including popular music magazines. Both of these databases are subscription-based, but because of their importance they are available in most music libraries. International Index to Music Periodicals (IIMP) is a relatively new subscription service that indexes more than 370 international music periodicals with over 60 full-text titles. It also includes retrospective coverage from over 185 periodicals dating back as far as 1874.
The most important music reference in English has been the Grove's Dictionaries for generations of music scholars. Now both The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians and The New Grove Dictionary of Opera are available online and have greatly enhanced the usability of these valuable sources.
Also, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera, and Who's Who in Opera are now part of the Oxford Reference Online. The utility of this system is that items can be searched in other Oxford dictionaries. For example, query of "Beethoven" produces a quote by E. M. Forster: "It will be generally admitted that Beethoven's Fifth Symphony is the most sublime noise that has ever penetrated into the ear of man" (Howards End [1910], from The Oxford Dictionary of Twentieth Century Quotations).
Other major resources include RISM (Répertoire International des Sources Musicales). "Music manuscripts after 1600" is an annotated index and guide to music manuscripts produced between 1600 and 1850 containing more than 380,000 works by over 18,000 composers found in manuscripts over 595 libraries and archives in 31 countries. The music manuscript database contains over 506,000 searchable musical incipits, which can be viewed as musical scores.
RIPM (Répertoire International de la Presse Musicale) contains over 410,000 annotated records from 127 volumes of nineteenth- and twentieth-century music periodicals from over 15 countries. Another important source is Doctoral Dissertations in Musicology (DDM) – Online, which is a database of bibliographic records for completed dissertations and new dissertation topics in the fields of musicology, music theory, and ethnomusic-ology, as well as in related musical, scientific, and humanistic disciplines. Available since 1996, it contains more than 12,000 records.
IIPA (International Index to the Performing Arts) Full Text contains 182,550 records drawn from over 210 periodicals and 33 full-text titles. It also contains retrospective coverage with citations dating back to 1864.
The Canadian Music Periodical Index, although restricted to Canadian music periodicals, should be mentioned because, unlike other databases mentioned above, it is free. A service provided by the National Library of Canada, it includes nearly 30,000 entries on articles dating from the late nineteenth century to the present day. Some 500 Canadian music journals, newsletters, and magazines are represented here, almost 200 of which are currently active and continue to be indexed. Another free service provided by the National Library of Canada is an online Encyclopedia of Music in Canada, available both in English and French.
Music databases
The Scribe Medieval Music Database (La Trobe University) is a collection of 6,000 musical scores, color images, texts, and bibliographic information on medieval music, searchable by text or melody. This includes the complete annual cycle of liturgical chant taken from original medieval sources, and the complete works of selected composers from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries (Stinson 1992).
CANTUS database, started at Catholic University in the 1980s and now hosted at the University of Western Ontario, contains indices of Latin ecclesiastical chants in over 70 selected manuscripts and early printed sources of the liturgical Office. It is searchable by first few words, keywords, chant identification number, or liturgical occasion. Further downloadable chant resources can be found at Cantus Planus Archiv at the University of Regensburg.
In development since 1989, Thesaurus Musicarum Latinarum (TML) is a full-text searchable database (with ASCII text and associated image files) containing a large corpus of Latin music theory written during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. A similar database of texts on Italian music theory and aesthetics is Saggi Musicali Italiani (SMI) and Texts on Music in English from the Medieval and Early Modern Eras (TME). Another source for Italian treatises, from the Renaissance and early Baroque, is Thesaurus Musicarum Italicarum (TMI). One of the features of this collection, not available in others, is that the many terms are hyperlinked. The CD-ROM version of this database contains complete facsimiles and they are being made available online.
Themefinder is a collaborative project of Stanford University and Ohio State University. It consists of three databases: Classical Instrumental Music (10,000 themes), European Folksongs (7,000 folksongs), and Latin Motets from the sixteenth century (18,000 incipits). A web-based searching interface is provided and the matched themes are displayed in graphical notation (Kornstdädt 1998).
MELDEX, a music search engine developed at the University of Waikato, New Zealand, forms part of the New Zealand Digital Library. The database consists of 9,400 folk melodies. This is one of the first search engines that allows query-by-humming, where search can be accomplished by providing a sung audio file online (Bainbridge 1998).
MuseData at Stanford University is a collection of full-text databases of music for several composers, including J. S. Bach, Beethoven, Corelli, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Telemann, and Vivaldi. It currently contains 2,461 complete movements of 634 classical pieces, including 185 Bach chorales (Selfridge-Field 1994a).
For scholars working with popular music there are a variety of large databases available. For MIDI data searchable by title and artist, there are sites that claim to index over 1 million MIDI files and 95,000 lyrics. Within classical music there are sites with over 20,000 MIDI files.
One can also find opera librettos (RISM-US Libretto Database of over 13,000 libretti), old English ballads, or even hip-hop lyrics, where one can use "Rhymerator" to find rhyming words online.
Specialized bibliography
The Online Bach Bibliography was first launched on the Web in May 1997 by Tomita Yo, and ever since it has been updated regularly. At present, it contains over 18,000 records of bibliographical references that are considered useful for the scholarly discussion of Bach's life and works.
The Beethoven Bibliography Database begun in 1990 currently includes 2,700 records for books and scores and is available from the Center for Beethoven Studies at San Jose State University (Elliott 1994).
Other notable databases include:
• OCLC (Online Computer Library Center) Music Library, which is a subset of the OCLC Online Union Catalogue; it provides citations to nearly 800,000 musical sound recordings.
• National Sound Archive at the British Library, whose catalogue includes entries for almost 2.5 million recordings, published and unpublished, in all genres from pop, jazz, classical, and world music, to oral history, drama and literature, dialect, language, and wildlife sounds.
• SONIC of Library of Congress. The Library of Congress Recorded Sound Collection contains some 2.5 million audio recordings including multiple copies. It currently has 350,000 bibliographic records representing roughly 25 percent of the Library's entire sound recording holding of, among others, 78s, 45s, and radio broadcasts.
• Ufficio Ricerca Fondi Musicali di Milano is a national catalogue of music manuscript and printed scores to 1900, containing over 300,000 entries (Gentili-Tedeschi 2001).
Sheet music
There are many large collections of North American sheet music available on the Web. Most of these are scanned images including the cover artwork and the musical score, with varying amount of metadata; for example, some have subjects for the cover art, and some have partial lyrics. For example, see the Library of Congress 1820–1885 (62,500 pieces registered at the Library for copyright), Brown University 1850–1920 (1,305 pieces of African-American sheet music), Duke University 1850–1920 (3,042 pieces), the Lester Levy Collection of Sheet Music at the Johns Hopkins University 1780–1960 (29,000 pieces), Mississippi State University (22,000 pieces), University of California at Berkeley 1852–1900 (2,000 pieces published in California). The next step for these collections is to provide audio, and full-text/music searching capabilities. In order to achieve these goals, automated optical music recognition system would be required.
Computer Application
Perhaps the most intensive utilization of computers in music is by composers who use them for various functions. The machines may be used to create new sounds, create new instruments and interfaces, imitate existing instruments with fine control, generate new composition, or train computers to listen to music for interaction with human performers. Other research activities in this field include: pitch recognition, tempo/beat induction, and expressive performance, where the computer attempts to imitate musicians. For thorough introduction and history in this area, see the excellent book by Roads (1996). Similar research topics are also investigated by music psychologists and music educators, where computers are used to model human musical cognition and abilities. Educators are also interested in using computers to aid in music teaching. Music theorists have also actively used computers for analysis of notated music. Applications include melodic and harmonic analysis, key-finder, segmentation, and development of interactive graphic analysis tools.
Music historians have used computers for a range of tasks. Samples of published works can be divided by subject area. Medieval and Renaissance applications include examples of computer-assisted examination and analysis of notational signs in twelfth-century manuscripts (Loos 1996), of the oral transmission of Old Roman chant (Haas 1997), and a computer program to compare a number of motets with questionable attributions (Thomas 1999). There are a number of computer analyses of motets by William Byrd and other English composers in an effort to confirm authorship (see Morehen 1992; Wulstan 1992, 1995). There are also systematic studies of vertical sonorities and melodic features of works by Italian Renaissance theorists and composers (Moll 1996). One example took Palestrina's Masses from the Casimiri edition, entered them into a database without text using a MIDI synthesizer, examined by customized programs, and manipulated by spreadsheet software. Areas of investigation included prolations and contexts of note spans and rests, including metric and textural aspects; the distribution of pitch classes, including the effects of mode; and the distribution of individual pitches correlated with voice ranges. Conclusions revealed that Palestrina's pitch-class collection was conservative and common voice ranges were narrower than previously reported (Miller 1992).
Computer applications in Baroque music include a database, music processor, and coding system for analyzing the music of (Telemann Lange 1995); software to analyze modality versus tonality in Bach's four-part chorales (Rasmussen 1996); a dissertation that used statistics and computer routines to resolve conflicting attributions in works by Bach's sons (Knoll 1998); the use of spreadsheets for statistical analysis in text critical study of Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier (Tomita 1993); and a computer analysis of the variable role of dissonance and contrapuntal techniques in Corelli Trio Sonatas (Peiper 1996).
Studies of Classical and Romantic era composers include analysis of melodic affinities and identical melodic elements in music by Mozart and Siissmayr to refute claims of the latter's authorship of portions of Mozart's Requiem (Leeson 1995); programs to detect melodic patterns and search text in Schubert's lieder (Nettheim 2000; Yi 1990); and an analytical comparison, based on statistics, using relational database and spreadsheet software, of the final movements of Brahms's symphonies nos. 3 and 4 and Bruckner's symphonies nos. 3 and 4, with findings that contradict a number of related previous studies (McArtor 1995).
Musicologists and theorists are applying computer programs to study tonal, atonal, and post-tonal music of the last century. An example is a study of excerpts from Bartók's Ten Easy Pieces in which the key is ambiguous. A program was created to determine the key (as recorded in MIDI) on the basis of the relative frequency and duration of pitch classes (Cooper 1998).
In the area of musical images and iconography, work has been done with the superim-position of divergent sixteenth- and seventeenth-century prints, such as those in the William Byrd edition (Brett and Smith 2001). Other studies focusing on images include one that describes some post-processing procedures for scanned images in re-establishing the content of medieval sources for sacred vocal music preserved in the Vatican Library (Planchart 2001).
Another, the Digital Image Archive of Medieval Music (DIAMM), provides a new resource for scholars desiring to digitize, archive, and make available images of primary sources and to develop techniques of digital image enhancement, or "virtual restoration", to retrieve lost data or improve the legibility of materials that cannot at present be read (Wathey et al. 2001).
Another area of research concerns the transcription of tablatures. Software has been developed to facilitate the assignment of voices when transcribing tablature, lute and guitar, into modern notation (Charnasse 1991; Kelly 1995; Derrien-Peden et al. 1991).
Performance practice is an area in need of further investigation. There is one study that automatically assigns proper fingering for English keyboard music (1560–1630), examining sixty surviving manuscripts, half of which contain fingerings. Ten important works with fingerings are stored and analyzed and then applied to those without fingerings (Morehen 1994). Composer sketches is another area just beginning to benefit from the application of digital techniques. A recent study describes photographic techniques used in an electronic facsimile of the sketches for Alban Berg's Wozzeck. By showing various stages of sketches for one scene from this opera, one of the most prominent works of the twentieth century, the paper suggests typical uses of an electronic facsimile for a large body of sketches. The archaeological nature of the task involves the capture of pencil drafts and paper paste-overs as well as the penetration of lacquer occlusions (Hall 2001).
Perhaps one of the most exciting of the recent articles in Computing in Musicology is a study of watermarks by Dexter Edge. The traditional methods used by music historians for imaging watermarks are problematic. Freehand tracing is inherently prone to inaccuracy, the Dylux method often seems ineffective with musical manuscripts, and beta-radiography has become prohibitively expensive. Using a scanner equipped with a transparency adapter and manipulating the resulting images, Edge is able to create digital images of watermarks with good results.
Folksong is one category that has inspired a number of studies. A paper on the mapping of European folksong discusses issues related to encoding, displaying, and analyzing geographical information pertaining to music (Aarden and Huron 2001). Other studies examine pulse in German folksong, melodic arch in Western folksongs, and contour analysis of Hungarian folk music (Nettheim 1993; Huron 1996; Juhasz 2000; Pintér 1999). For further information on application in musicology see Nettheim (1997) and Selfridge-Field (1992).
Music Information Retrieval
As more and more music is becoming available on the Internet, it has become evident that there is a need for a method of searching for the required music information. Although this branch of research is in its initial stage, it is growing rapidly. With increased interest in digital libraries, in general, preservation and retrieval of musical material both new and old is necessary. Although searching for textual information is becoming easier, as with image searching, searching for music, in audio format or in notated format, is still difficult (Byrd and Crawford 2001).
Topics in this field include: query-by-humming, automatic genre and style classification, music indexing, melodic similarity, and automatic transcription. The latter, especially transcribing polyphonic music, remains the "holy grail" of audio engineers.
The copyright issue is still under intense debate (Anthony et al. 2001).
Although most of these issues have been the academic concerns of music scholars, there is also an ever-increasing commercial interest in knowing more about music. Record companies are eager for buyers to find music more easily and for the companies to be able to classify musical styles and genre so that they can match listeners' preferences. To accomplish this, companies are asking questions such as "What is a melody or theme?" and "Where do they occur?" Knowing the answers will aid in discovering new music that a consumer would like. Thus, with funding from the commercial sector, there may now be additional research opportunities for music investigators.
Conclusions
This is a very exciting time for music. Technology is making new sounds and unprecedented access to music. As more and more musical data become readily available, musical research methodology may undergo a fundamental change. As David Huron hints, the discipline will go from a "data-poor" field to a "data-rich" field (Huron 1999). As of now, significant research has been limited to subjects such as composer attributions, image enhancements, determination of provenance based on watermarks, and some notational studies. More needs to be done. Also, with pressure from music information retrieval (MIR) areas, there may be greater need for scholars from different musical disciplines to work together to solve a variety of musical puzzles. Whether it is for musicologists and theorists or members of the business and lay communities, we will need to develop more sophisticated analytical technologies and programs for search and retrieval of an ever-expanding mass of information and sound.
References for Further Reading
Aarden, B. and D. Huron (2001). Mapping European Folksong: Geographical Localization of Musical Features. Computing in Musicology 12: 169–83.
Alphonce, B. (1989). Computer Applications in Music Research: A Retrospective. Computers in Music Research 1: 1–74.
Anthony, D., C. Cronin, and E. Selfridge-Field (2001). The Electronic Dissemination of Notated Music: An Overview. Computing in Musicology 12: 135–66.
Bainbridge, D. (1998). MELDEX: A Web-based Melodic Locator Service. Computing in Musicology 11: 223–9.
Bent, I. and J. Morehen (1978). Computers in Analysis of Music. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Music 104: 30–46.
Brett, P. and J. Smith (2001). Computer Collation of Divergent Early Prints in the Byrd Edition. Computing in Musicology 12: 251–60.
Byrd, D. and T. Crawford (2001). Problems of Music Information Retrieval in the Real World. Information Processing and Management 38, 2: 249–220.
Charnassé, H. (1991). ERATTO Software for German Lute Tablatures. Computing in Musicology 7: 60–2.
Cooper, D. (1998). The Unfolding of Tonality in the Music of Béla Bartók. Music Analysis 17, 1: 21–220.
Davis, D. S. (1988). Computer Applications in Music. Madison, WI: A-R Editions.
Derrien-Peden, D., I. Kanellos, and J.-F. Maheas (1991). French Sixteenth-century Guitar Tablatures: Transcriptions and Analysis. Computing in Musicology 7: 62–4.
Edge, D. (2001). The Digital Imaging of Watermarks. Computing in Musicology 12: 261–74.
Elliott, P. (1994). Beethoven Bibliography Online. Computing and Musicology 9: 51–2.
Gentili-Tedeschi, M. (2001). Il lavoro dell'Ufficio Ricerca Fondi Musicali di Milano. Libreria Musicale Italiana 18: 483–7.
Haas, M. (1997). Mündliche Überlieferung und altrömischer Choral: Historische und analytische computergestützte Untersuchungen. Bern: Lang.
Hall, P. (2001). The Making of an Electronic Facsimile: Berg's Sketches for Wozzeck. Computing in Musicology 12: 275–82.
Hewlett, W B. and Selfridge-Field, E. (1991). Computing in Musicology, 1966–91. Computers and the Humanities 25, 6: 381–92.
Huron, D. (1996). The Melodic Arch in Western Folksongs. Computing in Musicology 10: 3–23.
Huron, D. (1999). The New Empiricism: Systematic Musicology in a Postmodern Age. 1999 Ernest Bloch Lecture, University of California, Berkeley.
Juhász, Z. (2000). Contour Analysis of Hungarian Folk Music in a Multidimensional Metric-Space. Journal of New Music Research 29, 1: 71–220.
Kelly, W. (1995). Calculating Fret Intervals with Spreadsheet Software. American Lutherie 43: 46–7.
Knoll, M. W. (1998). Which Bach Wrote What? A Cumulative Approach to Clarification of Three Disputed Works. PhD dissertation, University of Michigan.
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Peiper, C. E. (1996). Dissonance and Genre in Corelli's Trio Sonatas: A LISP-based Study of Opp. 1 and 2. Computing in Musicology 10: 34–8.
Pintér, I. (1999). Computer-aided Transcription of Folk Music. Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 40, 1–3: 189–209.
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